The Constitution of India, one of the world’s longest written constitutions, provides the legal and political framework for the world’s largest democracy. Since its adoption on 26 January 1950, it has been amended 105 times as of September 2021, signifying its dynamic nature. This article aims to offer a concise overview of these amendments, each bringing its own set of changes, controversies, and contributions to the evolution of India as a constitutional democracy.
First Amendment (1951)
Subject: Land Reforms, Freedom of Speech
The primary objective of this amendment was to fulfill the socioeconomic objectives proposed in the Directive Principles of State Policy. By adding the Ninth Schedule, it aimed to protect land reform laws from being declared unconstitutional by the judiciary. The amendment also imposed restrictions on the freedom of speech to protect the integrity of India.
Second Amendment (1952)
Subject: Representation in Parliament
The amendment modified Article 81 to allow the government to re-adjust the ceiling on representation in Parliament in response to population changes.
Third Amendment (1954)
Subject: Trade and Commerce
This amendment aimed to bring clarity to the subject matter listed under Entries 33, 34, 35 and 36 of List III (Concurrent List) in the Seventh Schedule, essentially allowing the State and the Union to legislate on certain trade and commerce matters.
Fourth Amendment (1955)
Subject: Property Rights
In line with the First Amendment, the Fourth Amendment attempted to safeguard land reform laws against judicial review. It amended Articles 31, 31A, and 31B, giving the state more authority to implement agrarian reforms.
Fifth Amendment (1955)
Subject: Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas
The amendment extended the President’s power to direct the governance framework in Scheduled and Tribal Areas, aiming for social justice for marginalized communities.
Sixth Amendment (1956)
Subject: Reorganization of States
This amendment led to the reorganization of states on a linguistic basis and altered the Fourth Schedule to reflect these changes in the representation of states in the Rajya Sabha (the Upper House of Parliament).
Seventh Amendment (1956)
Subject: Reorganization of States (Continued)
Continuing from the Sixth Amendment, the Seventh Amendment led to further state reorganization and changes in Articles 81, 82, 131, 153, 158, 168, 170, 173 and 217, thereby enabling a smooth transition.
Eighth Amendment (1960)
Subject: Reservation of Seats
The amendment extended the reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Lok Sabha (the Lower House) and State Legislative Assemblies for another ten years.
Ninth Amendment (1960)
Subject: Ceding Territory to Pakistan
This unique amendment ratified the ceding of territory to Pakistan following a mutual agreement, illustrating the Constitution’s flexibility to adapt to geopolitical changes.
Tenth Amendment (1961)
Subject: Incorporation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli
This amendment integrated the Union Territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli into the Union of India after its liberation from Portuguese rule.
11th Amendment (1961)
Subject: Presidential Election Procedure
The 11th Amendment clarified the procedure for electing the President of India, particularly in cases where a candidate could be elected by a majority of the total votes of elected members. This established a more precise and smooth electoral process for the highest office in India.
12th Amendment (1962)
Subject: Incorporation of Goa, Daman, and Diu
The amendment integrated the territories of Goa, Daman, and Diu into the Union of India, following their liberation from Portuguese rule. This was significant for India’s territorial integrity.
13th Amendment (1962)
Subject: Formation of Nagaland
This amendment led to the creation of Nagaland as a separate state, with special protections under Article 371A to safeguard its unique social and cultural practices.
14th Amendment (1962)
Subject: Incorporation of Pondicherry
Pondicherry (now Puducherry) became a Union Territory after its liberation from French rule. The 14th Amendment formalized its inclusion into the Indian Union.
15th Amendment (1963)
Subject: Enhancement of Retirement Age of Judges
This amendment increased the retirement age of High Court judges from 60 to 62 years and made changes to provisions regarding their removal, enhancing the independence of the judiciary.
16th Amendment (1963)
Subject: Pledge of Allegiance
The 16th Amendment required all candidates standing for election to Parliament and State Legislatures to pledge allegiance to the unity and integrity of India. This was aimed at curbing separatist movements.
17th Amendment (1964)
Subject: Land Reforms and the Ninth Schedule
This amendment aimed to protect land reform laws from judicial review by placing them under the Ninth Schedule, continuing the thrust towards agrarian reforms initiated by the early amendments.
18th Amendment (1966)
Subject: State Reorganization
The 18th Amendment provided for the alteration of the boundaries of existing states and the formation of new states, facilitating the smooth reorganization of states according to administrative convenience and social needs.
19th Amendment (1966)
Subject: Abolition of Election Tribunals
The amendment dissolved election tribunals and transferred their functions to High Courts, aiming to expedite the resolution of election disputes.
20th Amendment (1966)
Subject: Validation of Election Laws
The 20th Amendment validated the election laws and ensured that pending election disputes could be quickly and effectively resolved by providing a legal foundation for the electoral process.
21st Amendment (1967)
Subject: Language
The 21st Amendment incorporated Sindhi as the 15th official language of the Constitution, acknowledging the significance of linguistic diversity in India.
22nd Amendment (1969)
Subject: Formation of States
This amendment facilitated the creation of autonomous states within existing states, leading to the formation of Meghalaya as a state within Assam.
23rd Amendment (1969)
Subject: Extension of Reservation
The amendment extended reservation quotas for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in Parliament and state legislatures by another ten years.
24th Amendment (1971)
Subject: Parliament’s Power to Amend the Constitution
The 24th Amendment validated Parliament’s authority to amend any part of the Constitution, including fundamental rights, in response to judicial decisions that questioned this power.
25th Amendment (1971)
Subject: Property Rights
The amendment altered the right to property and allowed the state to deprive citizens of their property for public purposes, albeit with compensation.
26th Amendment (1971)
Subject: Abolition of Privy Purses
The amendment abolished the privy purses and privileges granted to former rulers of princely states, marking an end to their special status.
27th Amendment (1971)
Subject: Formation of Manipur and Tripura
This amendment led to the establishment of Manipur and Tripura as full-fledged states and made consequential amendments to Articles 80 and 81.
28th Amendment (1972)
Subject: Abolition of Special Jury System
This amendment abolished the special jury system, bringing uniformity to the administration of justice across the country.
29th Amendment (1972)
Subject: Land Reforms in Kerala
The amendment added two land reform acts from Kerala to the Ninth Schedule, protecting them from judicial review to facilitate agrarian reforms.
30th Amendment (1972)
Subject: Appeals to Supreme Court
This amendment reduced the scope for appeals to the Supreme Court in civil cases, relieving the burden on the highest judicial body.
31st Amendment (1973)
Subject: Increase in Lok Sabha Seats
The amendment increased the maximum number of seats in the Lok Sabha from 525 to 545, allowing for more extensive representation in Parliament.
32nd Amendment (1973)
Subject: Special Provisions for Andhra Pradesh
This amendment provided special status to Andhra Pradesh in regard to employment and education for locals, marking a unique attempt at regional development.
33rd Amendment (1974)
Subject: Resignations and Vacation of Parliamentary Seats
This amendment altered the procedure for resigning from legislative assemblies and councils, aiming to reduce ambiguity and ensure stability.
34th Amendment (1974)
Subject: Land Reforms
Like several of its predecessors, this amendment aimed to protect land reform laws from judicial review by placing them in the Ninth Schedule.
35th Amendment (1974)
Subject: Sikkim as an Associate State
This amendment included Sikkim as an associate state within the Union of India, paving the way for its eventual full-statehood.
36th Amendment (1975)
Subject: Statehood for Sikkim
Continuing from the 35th Amendment, Sikkim became a full-fledged state of the Indian Union, emphasizing the flexible territorial nature of the Constitution.
37th Amendment (1975)
Subject: Legislative Assembly for Arunachal Pradesh
This amendment enabled the formation of a Legislative Assembly for the Union Territory of Arunachal Pradesh, strengthening local governance.
38th Amendment (1975)
Subject: Presidential Proclamations
This amendment made presidential proclamations, including emergency powers, immune from judicial review. However, this part was later repealed due to its controversial nature.
39th Amendment (1975)
Subject: Electoral Matters
This amendment aimed to secure the election of the Prime Minister from judicial review, but this clause was eventually struck down by the courts.
40th Amendment (1976)
Subject: Land Reforms and Mineral Wealth
This amendment furthered land reforms and also dealt with the excavation of mineral wealth, inserting these items into the Ninth Schedule.
41st Amendment (1976)
Subject: Legal Immunity
This amendment conferred immunity upon the President, Vice-President, and Governors against legal proceedings concerning their personal acts during their term. The intent was to maintain the dignity and functioning of these high offices.
42nd Amendment (1976)
Subject: ‘Mini Constitution’
Popularly known as the “Mini Constitution,” this amendment made sweeping changes, such as giving Directive Principles precedence over Fundamental Rights. It also extended the term of Lok Sabha and Legislative Assemblies from 5 to 6 years, which was later reversed. The Supreme Court, in Minerva Mills v. Union of India 1980 SCC (3) 625, quashed the amendments to Articles 31C and 368 as it was in contravention with the basic structure of the Constitution.
43rd Amendment (1977)
Subject: Reversal of 42nd Amendment
This amendment rolled back some of the more controversial aspects of the 42nd Amendment. It restored civil liberties and limited the government’s ability to impose internal emergencies.
44th Amendment (1978)
Subject: Safeguarding Rights
Implemented to prevent abuse of power, the 44th Amendment ensured that emergency provisions could not be misused to undermine fundamental rights, including the Right to Property, which was restructured as a legal right.
45th Amendment (1980)
Subject: Extension of Reservation
The amendment extended the reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies by another ten years.
46th Amendment (1982)
Subject: Land Reforms
This amendment sought to shield land reform laws from judicial scrutiny by placing them in the Ninth Schedule, allowing for agrarian reform measures to take place.
47th Amendment (1984)
Subject: Furthering Land Reforms
Similar to the 46th Amendment, this act included more land reform laws in the Ninth Schedule to safeguard them from legal challenges.
48th Amendment (1984)
Subject: President’s Rule in Punjab
The amendment extended President’s Rule in Punjab for two years, beyond the regular one-year term, amidst insurgency and instability in the state.
49th Amendment (1984)
Subject: Special Status to Tripura
This amendment granted special autonomy to the Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council, protecting traditional laws and customs of tribal populations.
50th Amendment (1984)
Subject: Armed Forces Resignation
This amendment empowered Parliament to stipulate the conditions under which members of the armed forces could resign, aiming for more regimented service conditions.
51st Amendment (1984)
Subject: Meghalaya Legislative Assembly
This amendment allowed for the reservation of seats for Scheduled Tribes in the Meghalaya Legislative Assembly, aiming to better represent the indigenous tribes of the state.
52nd Amendment (1985)
Subject: Anti-Defection Law
Commonly referred to as the Anti-Defection Law, this amendment established conditions under which lawmakers could be disqualified for defecting from their political parties, thus promoting political stability.
53rd Amendment (1986)
Subject: Statehood for Mizoram
This amendment conferred statehood upon Mizoram, which had been a Union Territory, thus giving it greater autonomy and legislative powers.
54th Amendment (1986)
Subject: Judicial Salaries
To attract competent individuals to the judiciary, this amendment increased the salaries of Judges of High Courts and the Supreme Court.
55th Amendment (1987)
Subject: Statehood for Arunachal Pradesh
Similar to Mizoram, this amendment upgraded Arunachal Pradesh from a Union Territory to a full-fledged state.
56th Amendment (1987)
Subject: Official Languages
This amendment added Konkani, Manipuri, and Nepali to the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution, recognizing them as official languages.
57th Amendment (1987)
Subject: Northeastern Assemblies
This amendment reserved seats for Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative Assemblies of Nagaland, Meghalaya, and Mizoram.
58th Amendment (1987)
Subject: Use of Hindi
To expand the usage of the Hindi language, this amendment permitted the use of Hindi in proceedings of the High Court of Tripura, Manipur, and Meghalaya.
59th Amendment (1988)
Subject: Emergency in Punjab
Given the civil unrest in Punjab, this amendment allowed for the imposition of President’s Rule in the state for up to three years instead of the typical one-year period.
60th Amendment (1988)
Subject: Taxation Powers
This amendment gave states the power to increase agricultural income tax and allowed them to use these funds for state-level obligations.
61st Amendment (1988)
Subject: Lowering the Voting Age
The voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 years. The idea behind this change was to include a younger population in the democratic process and to align the voting age with other responsibilities and rights that commence at 18.
62nd Amendment (1989)
Subject: Reservation Extension
Extended the reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) in the Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years.
63rd Amendment (1989)
Subject: Repeal of the 59th Amendment
The 63rd Amendment repealed the 59th Amendment, which had allowed for the imposition of President’s Rule in Punjab for three years.
64th Amendment (1990)
Subject: Panchayat Extension in Punjab and Nagaland
Provided for the extension of Panchayat Raj in Punjab and included Union Territories. However, this amendment could not be passed in the Rajya Sabha.
65th Amendment (1990)
Subject: National Commission for SC and ST
Established the National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to monitor the safeguards provided for SCs and STs.
66th Amendment (1990)
Subject: Land Reforms
Brought about changes related to land reform laws to safeguard them from judicial scrutiny.
67th Amendment (1990)
Subject: Duration of Legislatures
Extended the duration of Legislative Assemblies in states under President’s Rule.
68th Amendment (1991)
Subject: Special Provision for Sikkim
Allowed for the inclusion of Nepali-speaking people of Sikkim into the electoral rolls.
69th Amendment (1991)
Subject: Special Status for Delhi
Granted special state status to the National Capital Territory of Delhi, now called simply Delhi, and provided for Legislative Assembly and a Council of Ministers.
70th Amendment (1992)
Subject: Inclusion of Legislators from Delhi and Puducherry
Included members of Legislative Assemblies of Delhi and Puducherry in the Electoral College for Presidential elections.
71st Amendment (1992)
Subject: Linguistic Inclusion
This amendment added Konkani, Manipuri, and Nepali to the Eighth Schedule, thereby recognizing these languages and enriching India’s linguistic diversity.
72nd Amendment (1992)
Subject: Special Provision for Tripura
This amendment provided for a special provision to extend the reservation of seats for Scheduled Tribes in the Tripura State Assembly.
73rd Amendment (1992)
Subject: Panchayati Raj Institutions
One of the landmark amendments, the 73rd, introduced Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) as a third tier of governance in rural India, bringing governance closer to the grassroots.
74th Amendment (1992)
Subject: Municipal Governance
Like the 73rd Amendment but for urban areas, this amendment laid the foundation for Municipalities as local self-governing bodies in towns and cities.
75th Amendment (1994)
Subject: Rent Control Laws
This amendment aimed to impose reasonable restrictions on rent control laws to protect both landlords and tenants.
76th Amendment (1994)
Subject: Reservation in Tamil Nadu
This amendment enabled the continuation of 69% reservation in Tamil Nadu by protecting it against judicial review.
77th Amendment (1995)
Subject: Reservation in Promotions
Enabled the reservation of promotions for SCs and STs in government jobs, which had been invalidated by the Supreme Court earlier.
78th Amendment (1995)
Subject: Land Reforms
Added further land reform laws to the Ninth Schedule, thus protecting them from judicial scrutiny.
79th Amendment (1999)
Subject: Extension of SC/ST Reservation
This amendment extended the reservation for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies for another ten years.
80th Amendment (2000)
Subject: Alternative Tax Sharing Mechanism
Introduced an alternative mechanism for sharing taxes between the Union and the States, making the division more equitable.
81st Amendment (2000)
Subject: Carrying Forward of Unfilled Vacancies
The amendment allows the carrying forward of unfilled vacancies of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in public employment, bypassing the 50% quota ceiling.
82nd Amendment (2000)
Subject: Relaxation of Qualifying Marks
This amendment gave the government the power to relax qualifying marks and other criteria in reservation in promotion for Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled Tribe (ST) candidates.
83rd Amendment (2000)
Subject: Reservation in Tripura
This amendment provided for reservation of seats for Scheduled Tribes in the State Legislative Assembly of Tripura.
84th Amendment (2001)
Subject: Readjustment of Electoral Constituencies
Originally constituencies were to be readjusted after every decennial census. This amendment froze the readjustment until 2026, thereby maintaining the existing constituencies based on the 1991 Census.
85th Amendment (2001)
Subject: Consequential Seniority
This amendment was enacted to clarify that reservation in promotions for SCs and STs would not only include reservation but also ‘consequential seniority’.
86th Amendment (2002)
Subject: Right to Education
This landmark amendment made education a fundamental right, ensuring free and compulsory education for children between the ages of 6 and 14.
87th Amendment (2003)
Subject: Readjustment of Electoral Constituencies
This amendment permitted the readjustment and rationalization of territorial constituencies in the states based on the population figures of the 2001 Census.
88th Amendment (2003)
Subject: Service Tax
This amendment provided for the levy and collection of taxes on services by the Union but distributed between the Union and the States.
89th Amendment (2003)
Subject: National Commission for SCs and STs
This amendment bifurcated the combined National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes into two separate Commissions.
90th Amendment (2003)
Subject: Reservation in Arunachal Pradesh
This amendment provided for the reservation of seats for Scheduled Tribes in the State Legislative Assembly of Arunachal Pradesh.
91st Amendment (2003)
Subject: Limitation of Legislative Members
This amendment imposed a limit on the size of the Cabinet to 15% of the Legislative Assembly or the Parliament, aiming to reduce the size and cost of governance.
92nd Amendment (2003)
Subject: Addition to Eighth Schedule
Four languages—Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, and Santhali—were added to the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution, thus recognizing them and making provisions for their development.
93rd Amendment (2005)
Subject: Educational Rights
This amendment allowed the State to make provisions for the advancement of socially and economically backward classes, particularly in educational institutions.
94th Amendment (2006)
Subject: Conditions for Ministerial Appointments
Modified the conditions for appointing Ministers in states of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Uttarakhand, and also made provisions for tribal welfare in these regions.
95th Amendment (2009)
Subject: Extension of Reservation
Extended the reservation of seats for SCs and STs in the Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies for another ten years.
96th Amendment (2011)
Subject: Change of the Name of a Language
The term “Oriya” in the Eighth Schedule was substituted with “Odia,” reflecting the phonetic spelling.
97th Amendment (2011)
Subject: Cooperative Societies
This amendment added a new Directive Principle for the promotion of cooperative societies and amended Article 19 and the 9th Schedule.
98th Amendment (2012)
Subject: Karnataka Development
This amendment inserted Article 371-J providing special status for six backward districts in the Hyderabad-Karnataka region of Karnataka.
99th Amendment (2014)
Subject: Judicial Appointments
This amendment sought to replace the collegial system of judicial appointments with the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC). However, it was struck down by the Supreme Court in 2015.
100th Amendment (2015)
Subject: Land Boundary Agreement
This amendment gave effect to an agreement between India and Bangladesh on the acquiring and transfer of territories.
101st Amendment (2016)
Subject: GST
Introduced the Goods and Services Tax (GST), significantly altering the tax structure in India.
102nd Amendment (2018)
Subject: National Commission for Backward Classes
Provided constitutional status to the National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC).
103rd Amendment (2019)
Subject: Economic Reservation
Provided for 10% reservation for economically weaker sections of society.
104th Amendment (2020)
Subject: Extension of Reservation for Anglo-Indians
Extended the reservation for Anglo-Indians and SCs/STs by another ten years in the Parliament and Legislative Assemblies.
105th Amendment (2021)
Subject: OBC Empowerment
This amendment grants states the power to identify and list backward classes, thus empowering them to offer reservations.